1. Kathal Kavithai Tamil Gallery
2. Tamil Gallery Thirumavalavan

All latest high quality photos and stills of Tamil actresses can be found in this page. Might and magic 3. Looking for Tamil actress images? Visit Tamilstar.com and check Tamil actress gallery for images of all popular Tamil actresses.

The Tamil people (/ˈtæmɪl/; Tamil: தமிழர், tamiẓhar (singular)^?[t̪ɐmɪɻɐɾ], or Tamil: தமிழர்கள், tamiẓarkaḷ (plural)^?[t̪ɐmɪɻɐɾxɐɭ]), also known as Tamilar, Tamilians or simply Tamils, are an ethnic group who speak the language Tamil as their mother tongue and trace their ancestry to southern India and north-eastern Sri Lanka.^[6] Tamils, with a population of around 76 million and with a documented history stretching back over 2,000 years, are one of the largest and oldest extant ethnolinguistic groups in the modern world.^[7] Tamils constitute 5.9% of the population in India (mostly concentrated in south India), 15.3% in Sri Lanka,^{[note 1]} 6% in Mauritius,^[14] 7% in Malaysia and 5% in Singapore.

On 5 April 2019, it was established that the Tamil civilization is proven to date back to at least 900 BC, results of radio carbon dating of samples from Adichanallur archaeological site, village on the banks of the Tamirabarani river in Tuticorin district of southern Tamil Nadu, were revealed by the Madurai bench of the Madras High Court.^[15]

From the 14th^{[verification needed]} century BCE onwards,^[16] urbanisation and mercantile activity along the western and eastern coasts of what is today Kerala and Tamil Nadu led to the development of four large Tamil political states, the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and Pallavas and a number of smaller states, all of whom were warring amongst themselves for dominance. The Jaffna Kingdom, inhabited by Sri Lankan Tamils, was once one of the strongest kingdoms of Sri Lanka, and controlled much of the north of the island.^[17][18]

Tamils were noted for their influence on regional trade throughout the Indian Ocean. Artifacts marking the presence of Roman traders show direct trade was active between Rome and southern India, and the Pandyas were recorded as having sent at least two embassies directly to Emperor Augustus in Rome. The Pandyas and Cholas were historically active in Sri Lanka. The Chola dynasty successfully invaded several areas in southeast Asia, including the powerful Srivijaya and the Malay city-state of Kedah.^[19] Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organizations like the Ayyavole and Manigramam played an important role in Southeast Asian trading networks.^[20]Pallava traders and religious leaders travelled to Southeast Asia and played an important role in the cultural Indianisation of the region. Scripts brought by Tamil traders to Southeast Asia, like the Grantha and Pallava scripts, induced the development of many Southeast Asian scripts such as Khmer, JavaneseKawi script, Baybayin and Thai.

The Tamil language is one of the oldest extant written languages, with a history dating back to 300 BCE. Tamil literature is dominated by poetry, especially Sangam literature, which is composed of poems composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE. The most important Tamil author was the poet and philosopher Thiruvalluvar, who wrote the Tirukkuṛaḷ, a group of treatises on ethics, politics, love and morality widely considered the greatest work of Tamil literature.^[21] Tamil visual art is dominated by stylised Temple architecture in major centres and the productions of images of deities in stone and bronze. Chola bronzes, especially the Nataraja sculptures of the Chola period, have become notable symbols of Hinduism. Tamil performing arts are divided into popular and classical. The classical form of dance is Bharatanatyam, whereas the popular forms are known as Koothu and performed in village temples and on street corners. Tamil cinema, known as Kollywood, is an very important part of the Indian cinema industry. It is the second-largest film industry in India, next only to Bollywood. Music too is divided into the classical Carnatic form and many popular genres.

Although most Tamils are Hindus, many, especially those in the rural areas practice what is considered to be folk Hinduism, venerating a plethora of village deities; while a sizeable number are Muslims and Christians. A small Jain community survives from the classical period as well. Tamil cuisine is informed by varied vegetarian and non-vegetarian items usually spiced with locally available spices. The music, the temple architecture and the stylised sculptures favoured by the Tamil people as in their ancient nation are still being learnt and practised. English historian and broadcaster Michael Wood called the Tamils the last surviving classical civilisation on Earth, because the Tamils have preserved substantial elements of their past regarding belief, culture, music and literature despite the influence of globalization.^[22][23]

• 2History
  • 2.1In India
  • 2.2In Sri Lanka
    • 2.2.4Modern period
• 3Geographic distribution
• 4Culture
  • 4.3Martial traditions
  • 4.6Performing arts

Etymology[edit]

It is unknown as to whether the term Thamizhar and its equivalents in Prakrit such as Damela, Dameda, Dhamila and Damila was a self designation or a term denoted by outsiders. Epigraphic evidence of an ethnicity termed as such is found in ancient Sri Lanka where a number of inscriptions have come to light datable from the 6th to the 5th century BCE mentioning Damela or Dameda persons. The well-known Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga ruler Kharavela refers to a T(ra)mira samghata (Confederacy of Tamil rulers) dated to 150 BCE. It also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence 113 years before then.^[24] In Amaravati in present-day Andhra Pradesh there is an inscription referring to a Dhamila-vaniya (Tamil trader) datable to the 3rd century CE.^[24] Another inscription of about the same time in Nagarjunakonda seems to refer to a Damila. A third inscription in Kanheri Caves refers to a Dhamila-gharini (Tamil house-holder). In the BuddhistJataka story known as Akiti Jataka there is a mention to Damila-rattha (Tamil dynasty). There were trade relationship between the Roman Empire and Pandyan Empire. As recorded by Strabo, Emperor Augustus of Rome received at Antioch an ambassador from a king called Pandyan of Dramira.^[25] Hence, it is clear that by at least 300 B.C., the ethnic identity of Tamils was formed as a distinct group.^[24]Thamizhar is etymologically related to Tamil, the language spoken by Tamil people. Southworth suggests that the name comes from tam-miz > tam-iz 'self-speak', or 'one's own speech'.^[26] Zvelebil suggests an etymology of tam-iz, with tam meaning 'self' or 'one's self', and '-iz' having the connotation of 'unfolding sound'. Alternatively, he suggests a derivation of tamiz < tam-iz < *tav-iz < *tak-iz, meaning in origin 'the proper process (of speaking)'.^[27]

History[edit]

In India[edit]

Pre-historic period[edit]

Possible evidence indicating the earliest presence of Tamil people in modern-day Tamil Nadu are the megalithic urn burials, dating from around 1500 BCE and onwards, which have been discovered at various locations in Tamil Nadu, notably in Adichanallur in Tirunelveli District^[28][29][30] which conform to the descriptions of funerals in classical Tamil literature.^[31]

Various legends became prevalent after the 10th century CE regarding the antiquity of the Tamil people. According to Iraiyanar Agapporul, a 10th/11th century annotation on the Sangam literature, the Tamil country extended southwards beyond the natural boundaries of the Indian peninsula comprising 49 ancient nadus (divisions). The land was supposed to have been destroyed by a deluge. The Sangam legends also adproded to the antiquity of the Tamil people by claiming tens of thousands of years of continuous literary activity during three Sangams.^[32]

Classical period[edit]

Ancient Tamils had three monarchical states, headed by kings called 'Vendhar' and several tribal chieftainships, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination 'Vel' or 'Velir'.^[33] Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called 'kizhar' or 'mannar'.^[34] The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other, mostly over territorial hegemony and property. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources. Ancient Tamil Sangam literature and grammatical works, Tolkappiyam; the ten anthologies, Pattuppāṭṭu; and the eight anthologies, Eṭṭuttokai also shed light on ancient Tamil people.^[35] The kings and chieftains were patrons of the arts, and a significant volume of literature exists from this period.^[36] The literature shows that many of the cultural practices that are considered peculiarly Tamil date back to the classical period.^[36]

Agriculture was important during this period, and there is evidence that networks of irrigation channels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE.^[37] Internal and external trade flourished, and evidence of significant contact with Ancient Rome exists.^[38] Large quantities of Roman coins and signs of the presence of Roman traders have been discovered at Karur and Arikamedu.^[38] There is evidence that at least two embassies were sent to the Roman EmperorAugustus by Pandya kings.^[39]Potsherds with Tamil writing have also been found in excavations on the Red Sea, suggesting the presence of Tamil merchants there.^[40] An anonymous 1st century traveller's account written in Greek, Periplus Maris Erytraei, describes the ports of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms in Damirica and their commercial activity in great detail. Periplus also indicates that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils were pepper, malabathrum, pearls, ivory, silk, spikenard, diamonds, sapphires, and tortoiseshell.^[41]

The classical period ended around the 4th century CE with invasions by the Kalabhra, referred to as the kalappirar in Tamil literature and inscriptions.^[42] These invaders are described as 'evil kings' and 'barbarians' coming from lands to the north of the Tamil country, but modern historians think they could have been hill tribes who lived north of Tamil country.^[43] This period, commonly referred to as the Dark Age of the Tamil country, ended with the rise of the Pallava dynasty.^[42][44][45]

• Megalithic sarcophagus burial from Tamil Nadu

• Virampatnam jewelry from funerary burial, 2nd century BCE, Tamil Nadu

• Souttoukeny jewelry, 2nd century BCE Tamil Nadu

• Map of ancient oceanic trade, and ports of Tamilakam

• Tamiḻakam during Sangam Period

Economy, trade and maritime[edit]

The Tamil country is strategically located in the Indian Ocean and had access to a sea trade route.

Imperial and post-imperial periods[edit]

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature and grammatical works like Tolkappiyar refers to them as the 'Three Glorified by Heaven', (Tamil: வாண்புகழ் மூவர், Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar^?).^[46] Later, they are mentioned in the Mauryan Empire's Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly and allied terms with him.^[47][48] The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, is mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.^[49] The Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, and Pallavas were followers of Hinduism, though for a short while some of them seem to have embraced Jainism and later converted to Hinduism.^[50] After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the Tamil kingdoms were allied with the Satavahana Dynasty.

These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in Tamil. The classical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature, is attributed to the period between 200 BCE and 300 CE.^[51][52] The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and material topics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period. These Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to the established order ('dharma'). Although the Pallava records can be traced from the 2nd century CE, they did not rise to prominence as an imperial dynasty until the 6th century.^[53] They transformed the institution of the kingship into an imperial one, and sought to bring vast amounts of territory under their direct rule. The Bhakti movement in Hinduism was founded at this time, and rose along with the growing influence of Jainism and Buddhism.^[54] The Pallavas pioneered the building of large, ornate temples in stone which formed the basis of the Dravidian temple architecture. They came into conflict with the KannadaChalukyas of Badami. During this period, the great Badami Chalukya King Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and defeated the Pallavas in several battles.^[55] Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily.^[56] However a later Chalukya King Vikramaditya II took revenge by repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II and the annexation of Kanchipuram.^[57] The Pallava dynasty was overthrown in the 9th century by the imperial Kannada Rashtrakutas who ruled from Gulbarga. King Krishna III, the last great Rashtrakuta king consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to the Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.^[58]

Under Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas became dominant in the 10th century and established an empire covering most of South India and Sri Lanka.^[59]The empire had strong trading links with the Chinese Song Dynasty and southeast Asia.^[60][61] The Cholas defeated the Eastern Chalukya and expanded their empire to the Ganges. They conquered the coastal areas around the Bay of Bengal and turned it into a Chola lake. Rajendra Chola improved his father's fleet and created the first notable marine of the Indian subcontinent. The Chola navyconquered the dominant Southeast Asian power, the Srivijaya Empire, and secured the sea trade route to China.^[59] Cholas exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer Empire. The latter half of the 11th century saw the union of Chola and Vengi kingdoms under Kulottunga I.^[62] The Chola emperor decisively defeated and repulsed an invasion by the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI who tried to interfere in Chola politics by installing his puppet. These wars resulted in a victory for the Cholas and led to the annexation of Gangavadi and Konkan regions. Vikramaditya VI was confined to his own dominions north of the Tungabhadra.^[63] The Chola empire remained formidable during the reign of Kulottunga and maintained its influence over the various kingdoms of Southeast Asia like the Sri Vijaya empire.^[64][65] According to historian Nilakanta Sastri, Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundation for the well being of the empire for the next 150 years.^[66]

The eventual decline of Chola power in South India began towards the end of Kulottunga III's reign. It was accentuated by the resurgence of Pandyas under Maravarman Sundara Pandya (1216-1238 CE)^[59] The waning Chola fortunes resulted in a three way fight for the Tamil regions between the Pandyas, the Hoysalas and the Kakatiyas. Even the Kadava chief, Kopperunjinga, rebelled against his Chola overlord, Rajaraja III, and asserted his independence.^[67] The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of the Tamil country during this period. They thoroughly exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other thereby preventing both the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During the period of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas and established a presence in the Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III who succeeded Rajaraja III was a much better ruler who took bold steps to revive the Chola fortunes. He led successful expeditions to the north as attested by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah.^[68] He also defeated two Pandya princes one of whom was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II and briefly made the Pandyas submit to the Chola overlordship. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, were quick to intervene and this time they sided with the Pandyas and repulsed the Cholas in order to counter the latter's revival.^[69] Tamil history turned a new leaf with the advent of the warrior prince, Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I. In the ensuing wars for supremacy, he emerged as the single most victorious ruler and the Pandya kingdom reached its zenith in the 13th century during his reign. Jatavarman Sundara Pandya first put an end to Hoysala interference by expelling them from the Kaveri delta and subsequently killed their king Vira Someswara in 1262 AD near Srirangam. He then defeated Kopperunjinga, the Kadava chieftain, and turned him into a vassal. The Pandya then turned his attention to the north and annexed Kanchi by killing the Telugu chief Vijaya Gandagopala. He then marched up to Nellore and celebrated his victories there by doing the virabisheka(anointment of heroes) after defeating the Kakatiya ruler, Ganapati. Meanwhile his lieutenant Vira Pandya defeated the king of Lanka and obtained the submission of the island nation.^[70] In the 14th century, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also had to face repeated invasions by the Delhi Sultanate. In 1335, Madurai, the Pandyan capital, was conquered by Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan and a short-lived Madurai Sultanate was established, but was captured in 1378 by the Vijayanagara Empire. Throughout the 15th and 16th century the Vijayanagara Empire was the dominant power of South India and sponsored many Tamil literary works. After the collapse of Vijayanagara in 1646, Tamil Nadu was dominated by small states like the Madurai Nayaks.

The area west of the western ghats became increasingly politically distinct from the Eastern parts ruled by Chola and Pandya Dynasties ^[71]Kerala was until 9th century, culturally and linguistically part of Tamilakam, with the local Koduntamil evolving to Malayalam.^[72] This socio-culturally transformation was altered through Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryan migration from Northern India in the 8th century.^[73]

In Sri Lanka[edit]

There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka .^[75] According to another theory, cultural diffusion well before Sinhalese arrival in Sri Lanka led to Tamil replacing a previous language of an indigenous Mesolithic population that became the Sri Lankan Tamils.^[76]

According to their tradition, Sri Lankan Tamils are lineal descendants of the aboriginal Naga and Yaksha people of Sri Lanka. The 'Nakar' used the cobra totem known as 'Nakam' in the Tamil language, which is still part of the HinduTamil tradition in Sri Lanka today as a subordinate deity.^[77]

Pre-historic period[edit]

The indigenous Veddhas of Sri Lanka have similar genetic profiles to Adivasi people of South India.^[78] Settlements of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India were excavated at megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on the west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island, with villages established between the 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE.^[79][80] Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the 10th century BCE. However, Indian history and archaeology have pushed the date back to the 15th century BCE, and in Sri Lanka, there is radiometric evidence from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occurs at least around the 9th or 10th century BCE.^[81]

Historic period[edit]

Early South Indian type black and red ware potsherds found in Sri Lanka, indicate that both region were bound by similar culture and identity.^[82] The many Brahmic inscriptions found in Sri Lanka, with Tamil clan names such as Parumakal, Ay, Vel, Uti (Utiyan), Tissa (Ticaiyan), Cuda/Cula/Cola, Naka etc., point out to early close affinity between Sri Lanka and South India.^[83]Potsherds with early Tamil writing from the 2nd century BCE have been found in excavations in north of the Sri Lanka in Poonagari, bearing several inscriptions including a clan name – vela, a name related to velir from ancient Tamil country.^[84] Tamil Brahmi inscribed potsherds have also been excavated in the south of the island in Tissamaharama. There is epigraphic evidence of people identifying themselves as Damelas or Damedas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) in Anuradhapura, the capital city of Rajarata, and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the 2nd century BCE.^[85] Historical records establish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India were closely involved in the island's affairs from about the 2nd century BCE.^[86][87] In Mahavamsa, a historical poem, ethnic Tamil adventurers such as Elara invaded the island around 145 BCE.^[88] Tamil soldiers from what is now South India were brought^{[by whom?]} to Anuradhapura between the 7th and 11th centuries CE in such large numbers that local chiefs and kings trying to establish legitimacy came to rely on them.^[89] By the 8th century CE there were Tamil villages collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands).^[90]

Medieval period[edit]

In the 9th and 10th centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions into Sri Lanka culminated in the Chola annexation of the island, which lasted until the latter half of the 11th century CE, after which Chola influence declined in Sri Lanka.^{[89][91][92][93]} The Chola decline in Sri Lanka was followed by the restoration of the Polonnaruwa monarchy in the late 11th century CE.^[94] In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil-dominant Aryacakaravarthi dynasty established the Jaffna Kingdom^[95] on the Jaffna peninsula and in parts of northern Sri Lanka. The Aryacakaravarthi expansion into the south was halted by Akalesvara Alagakkonara, the descendant of a powerful feudal family from Kanchipuram that migrated to Sri Lanka around the 13th century and converted to Buddhism.^[96]. Akalesvara was the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344–59 CE) and soon became the real power behind the throne. Vira Alakeshwara, a descendant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the Sinhalese,^[97] but the Ming admiral Zheng He overthrew him in 1409 and took him as a captive to China, after which his family declined in influence. The Aryachakaravarthi dynasty continued to rule over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until the Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom in 1619. The coastal areas of the island were taken over by the Dutch and then became part of the British Empire in 1796. The English sailor Robert Knox described walking into the island's Tamil country in the publication An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, annotating some kingdoms within it on a map in 1681.^[98] Upon the arrival of European powers from the 17th century, the Tamils' separate nation was described^{[by whom?]} in their areas of habitation in the northeast of the island.^[99]

The caste structure of the majority Sinhalese has also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India since the 13th century CE. This led to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups: the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava.^{[100][101][102]} The Hindu migration and assimilation continued until the 18th century.^[100]

Modern period[edit]

British colonists consolidated the Tamil territory in southern India into the Madras Presidency, which was integrated into British India. Similarly, the Tamil speaking parts of Sri Lanka joined with the other regions of the island in 1802 to form the Ceylon colony. Ceylon remained in political union with India until India's independence in 1947; it gained independence the following year, as Sri Lanka, with both Sinhalese and Tamil populations.

The post-independence period and the Civil War[edit]

Tamil Eelam is a proposed independent state that Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora aspire to establish in the north and east of Sri Lanka.^{[103][104][105][106][107][108]} Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure in British Ceylon for better administration.^[109] During the British colonial rule, many Tamils held higher positions than the Sinhalese in the government, because they were favored by the British for their qualification in English education. In the Sri Lankan highlands the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British and Indian Tamils were settled there as plantation workers.^[110] After the British colonial rule in Sri Lanka ended, ethnic tension between the Sinhalese and the Sri Lankan Tamils rose. The Sinhalese, constituting a majority of the country, resented the minority Tamils having huge power in the island. In 1948 about 700,000 Indian Tamil tea plantation workers from Sri Lanka were made stateless and deported to India. In 1956 the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka passed the Sinhala Only Act, an act where Sinhala replaced English as the only official language of Sri Lanka. Due to this, many Tamils were forced to resign as civil servants/public servants because they were not fluent in Sinhala.^[111] The Sri Lankan Tamils saw the act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them.

After anti-Tamil pogroms in 1956, 1958 and 1977 and a brutal crackdown against Tamils protesting against these acts, guerilla groups like the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam were established^{[by whom?]}. They aimed to set up an independent Tamil state, Tamil Eelam, for majority-Tamil regions in Sri Lanka. The burning of Jaffna library in 1981 and Black July in 1983 finally led to over 25 years of war between the Sri Lankan army and the Tamil Tigers, in which both sides committed numerous atrocities. This Sri Lankan civil war led to death of over 100,000 people, according to the United Nations.^[112] The Sri Lankan government allegedly committed war crimes against the civilian Sri Lankan Tamil people during the final months of the Eelam War IV phase in 2009, when the leader of the Tigers, Prabhakaran, was killed.^[113] The war led to the flight of over 800,000 Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, many going to the UK and India. As of 2018 Tamils made up 25% of the population of Sri Lanka.

Geographic distribution[edit]

India[edit]

Most Tamils in India live in the state of Tamil Nadu. Tamils are the majority in the union territory of Puducherry, a former French colony. Puducherry is a subnational enclave situated within Tamil Nadu. Tamils account for at least one-sixth of the population in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

There are significant Tamil communities in other parts of India. Most of these have emerged fairly recently, dating to the colonial and post-colonial periods, but some date back to the medieval period. Significant populations reside in Karnataka (2.9 million), Maharashtra (1.4 million), Andhra Pradesh (1.2 million), Kerala (0.6 million) and the National Capital Region (0.1 million).^[114]

Sri Lanka[edit]

There are two groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka: the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils. The Sri Lankan Tamils (or Ceylon Tamils) are descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftaincies called Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of bonded laborers who migrated from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.^[115] There also exists a significant Muslim population in Sri Lanka who are speakers of the Tamil language. Due to independent lineage,^[9][10][11] they are listed^[9][11][12] as Moors by the Sri Lankan government.^[116][117]

Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital Colombo, whereas most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands.^[117] Historically both groups have seen themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s.^[118]

Under the terms of an agreement reached between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about 40 percent of the Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and many of the remainder were repatriated to India.^[119] By the 1990s, most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship.^[119]

Tamil diaspora[edit]

Significant Tamil emigration began in the 18th century, when the British colonial government sent many poor Tamils as indentured labourers to far-off parts of the Empire, especially Malaya, South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Jamaica, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Martinique. At about the same time, many Tamil businessmen also migrated to other parts of the British Empire, particularly to Burma and East Africa.^[120]

Many Tamils still live in these countries, and the Tamil communities in Singapore, Reunion Island, Malaysia and South Africa have retained much of their original culture and language. Many Malaysian children attend Tamil schools, and a significant portion of Tamil children are brought up with Tamil as their first language. In Singapore, Mauritius and Reunion, Tamil students learn Tamil as their second language in school, with English as the first. In Singapore, to preserve the Tamil language, the government has made it an official language despite Tamils comprising only about 5% of the population, and has also introduced compulsory instruction of the language for Tamils. Other Tamil communities, such as those in South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Jamaica, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Pakistan, Martinique, and the Caribbean no longer speak Tamil language as a first language, but still retain a strong Tamil identity, and are able to understand the language, while most elders speak it as a first language.^[121] There is a very small Tamil community in Pakistan, notably settled since the partition in 1947.^[122]

A large emigration also began in the 1980s, as Sri Lankan Tamils sought to escape the ethnic conflict there. These recent emigrants have most often moved to Australia, Europe, north America and southeast Asia.^[123] Today, the largest concentration of Sri Lankan Tamils outside Sri Lanka can be found in Toronto.^{[124][125][126][127]}

Culture[edit]

Language and literature[edit]

Tamils have strong attachment to the Tamil language, which is often venerated in literature as Tamil̲an̲n̲ai, 'the Tamil mother'.^[128] It has historically been, and to large extent still is, central to the Tamil identity.^[129] Like the other languages of South India, it is a Dravidian language, unrelated to the Indo-European languages of northern India. The language has been far less influenced by Sanskrit than the other Dravidian languages, and preserves many features of Proto-Dravidian, though modern-day spoken Tamil in Tamil Nadu freely uses loanwords from Sanskrit and English.^[130]Tamil literature is of considerable antiquity, and is recognised as a classical language by the government of India. Classical Tamil literature, which ranges from lyric poetry to works on poetics and ethical philosophy, is remarkably different from contemporary and later literature in other Indian languages, and represents the oldest body of secular literature in South Asia.^[131]

Religion[edit]

Ancient Tamil grammatical works, Tolkappiyam; the ten anthologies, Pathupattu; and the eight anthologies, Ettuthogai shed light on early religion. Murugan was glorified as the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent, as the favored god of the Tamils.^[35]Sivan was also seen as the supreme God.^[35] Early iconography of Seyyon^[132] and Sivan^{[133][134][135]} and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to the Indus Valley Civilization.^[136][137] The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, thinais, based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity such as Seyyon in Kurinji-the hills, Thirumal in Mullai-the forests, Korravai in Marutham-the plains, and Wanji-ko in the Neithal-the coasts and the seas. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali who are major deities in Hinduism today. Dravidian influence on early Vedic religion is evident; many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.^[138] This represents an early religious and cultural fusion^{[139][note 2]} or synthesis^[141] between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, flora and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.^{[142][140][143][144]} Mercantile groups from Tamilakam and Kerala introduced Cholapauttam, a syncretic form of Buddhism and Shaivism in northern Sri Lanka and Southern India. This religion was transmitted through the Tamil language. The religion lost its importance in the 14th century when conditions changed for the benefit of Sinhala/Pali traditions.^[145]

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. Amman, Mariamman, Durgai, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kali and Saptakanniyar are venerated in all their glorious forms.^[146] The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, who also appear predominantly as goddesses.^[147] In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.^[148]About 88%^[149] of the population of Tamil Nadu are Hindus.

In Tamil Nadu, Christians and Muslims account for 6% and 5.8% respectively.^[149] The majority of Muslims in Tamil Nadu speak Tamil,^[150] with less than 15% of them reporting Urdu as their mother tongue.^[151]Tamil Jains now number only a few thousand.^[152]Atheist, rationalist, and humanist philosophies are also adhered by sizeable minorities.^[153]

The most popular Tamil Hindu deity is Murugan; he is known as the patron god of the Tamils and is also called 'Tamil Kadavul' (Tamil God).^[154][155] In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest and Pillaiyar the oldest son of Sivan and Parvati. The goddess Parvati is often depicted as a goddess with green skin complexion in Tamil Hindu tradition. The worship of Amman, also called Mariamman, thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess, is also very common.^[156]Kan̲n̲agi, the heroine of the Cilappatikār̲am, is worshipped as Pattin̲i by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka.^[157] There are also many followers of Ayyavazhi in Tamil Nadu, mainly in the southern districts.^[158] In addition, there are many temples and devotees of Thirumal, Sivan, Pillaiyar, and the other Hindu deities.

Muslims across Tamil Nadu follow Hanafi and Shafi'i schools while the Tamil Muslims in Sri Lanka follow the Shadhili school. While the Marakkayar and Kayalar sects claim descent from the Arab world, the Rowther and Lebbai sects claim descent from the Turkic world. All these sects have improvised Tamil vocabulary with peculiar loan words due to miscegenation. Erwadi in Ramanathapuram district and Nagore in Nagapattinam district^[159] are the major pilgrimage centres for Muslims in Tamil Nadu. Karpudayar mosque in Kayalpatnam, Old Jumma mosque in Kilakarai and Kazimar Big Mosque in Madurai are among the oldest mosques of Tamil Muslims in Tamil Nadu.

Among the ancient Tamils the practice of erecting memorial stones (natukal) had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century.^[160] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.^[161] They often carry inscriptions displaying a variety of adornments, including bas relief panels, friezes, and figures on carved stone.^[162]

The most important Tamil festivals are Pongal, a harvest festival that occurs in mid-January, and Varudapirappu, the Tamil New Year, which occurs on 14 April. Both are celebrated by almost all Tamils, regardless of religion. The Hindu festival Deepavali is celebrated with fanfare; other local Hindu festivals include Thaipusam, Panguni Uttiram, and Adiperukku. While Adiperukku is celebrated with more pomp in the Cauvery region than in others, the Ayyavazhi Festival, Ayya Vaikunda Avataram, is predominantly celebrated in the southern districts of Kanyakumari District, Tirunelveli, and Thoothukudi.^[163]

In rural Tamil Nadu, many local deities, called aiyyan̲ārs, are thought to be the spirits of local heroes who protect the village from harm.^[164] Their worship often centres around nadukkal, stones erected in memory of heroes who died in battle. This form of worship is mentioned frequently in classical literature and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition.^[165]Munis are a group of guardian gods, who are worshiped by Tamils. The Saivist tradition of Hinduism is significantly represented amongst Tamils, more so among Sri Lankan Tamils, although most of the Saivist places of religious significance are in northern India. The Alvars and Nayanars, who were predominantly Tamils, played a key role in the renaissance of Bhakti tradition in India. In the 10th century, the philosopher Ramanuja propagated the theory of Visishtadvaitam.^[166]Kambaramayanam is the Tamil version of Hindu Epic Ramayana, which was written by the Tamil poet Kambar during 12 century. The Tamil version is smaller than the original Ramayana written by Valmiki. Kannada full movie download. It's not a translation but tells the story in a different perspective.

Tamil Jains constitute around 0.13% of the population of Tamil Nadu.^[149] Many of the rich Tamil literature works were written by Jains.^[167] According to George L. Hart, the legend of the Tamil Sangams or literary assemblies was based on the Jain sangham at Madurai.^[168]

Martial traditions[edit]

Various martial arts including Kuttu Varisai, Varma Kalai, Silambam, Adithada, Malyutham and Kalarippayattu, are practised in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.^[169] The warm-up phase includes yoga, meditation and breathing exercises. Silambam originated in ancient Tamilakam and was patronized by the Pandyans, Cholas and Cheras, who ruled over this region. Silapathiharam, Tamil literature from the 2nd century CE, refers to the sale of Silamabam instructions, weapons and equipment to foreign traders.^[170] Since the early Sangam age, there was a warlike culture in South India. War was regarded as an honorable sacrifice and fallen heroes and kings were worshiped in the form of a hero stone. Each warrior was trained in martial arts, horse riding and specialized in two of the weapons of that period: Vel (spear), Val (sword), and Vil (bow).^[171] Heroic martyrdom was glorified in ancient Tamil literature. The Tamil kings and warriors followed an honour code similar to that of Japanese samurai and committed suicide to preserve honor. The forms of martial suicide were known as Avipalli, Thannai, Verttal, Marakkanchi, Vatakkiruttal and Punkilithu Mudiyum Maram. Avipalli was mentioned in all the works except Veera Soliyam. It was a self-sacrifice of a warrior to the goddess of war for the victory of his commander.^[172] The Tamil rebels in Sri Lanka reflected some elements of Tamil martial traditions which included worship of fallen heroes (Maaveerar Naal) and practice of martial suicide. They carried a suicide pill around their neck to escape captivity and torture.^[173] A remarkable feature, besides their willingness to sacrifice, is that they were well organized and disciplined. It was forbidden for the rebels to consume tobacco, alcohol, drugs and to have sexual relationships.^[174]

Among the ancient Tamils the practice of erecting memorial stones (natukal) had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century.^[160] It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.^[161] They often carry inscriptions displaying a variety of adornments, including bas relief panels, friezes, and figures on carved stone.^[162]

The Wootz steel originated in South India and Sri Lanka.^[175][176] There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel since the time of Alexander's India campaign. The crucible steel production process started in the sixth century BCE, at production sites of Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, Golconda in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Sri Lanka and exported globally; the Tamils of the Chera Dynasty producing what was termed the finest steel in the world, i.e. Seric Iron to the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese and Arabs by 500 BCE.^{[177][178][179]} The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as 'Wootz'.^[180]

The Tamilakam method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heated and hammered to be rid of slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as avārai.^[180][181] The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel from the Chera Tamils by the 5th century BCE.^[182][183] In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as Anuradhapura, Tissamaharama and Samanalawewa, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A 200 BCE Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period.^{[184][185][186][187]} The Arabs introduced the South Indian/Sri Lankan wootz steel to Damascus, where an industry developed for making weapons of this steel. The 12th century Arab traveler Edrisi mentioned the 'Hinduwani' or Indian steel as the best in the world.^[175] Another sign of its reputation is seen in a Persian phrase – to give an 'Indian answer', meaning 'a cut with an Indian sword'.^[188] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe and the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East.^[188]

Traditional weapons[edit]

The Tamil martial arts also includes various types of weapons.

• Valari (throwing stick)
• Maduvu (deer horns)
• Surul vaal (curling blade)
• Vaal (sword) + Ketayam (shield)
• Itti or Vel (spear)
• Savuku (whip)
• Kattari (fist blade)
• Veecharuval (battle machete)
• Silambam (long bamboo staff)
• Kuttu katai (spiked knuckleduster)
• Katti (dagger/knife)
• Vil (bow) + Ambu (arrow)
• Tantayutam (mace)
• Soolam (trident)
• Theekutchi (flaming baton)
• Yeratthai mulangkol (dual stick)
• Yeretthai Vaal (dual sword)

Visual art and architecture[edit]

Kathal Kavithai Tamil Gallery

Most traditional art is religious in some form and usually centres on Hinduism, although the religious element is often only a means to represent universal—and, occasionally, humanist—themes.^[189]

The most important form of Tamil painting is Tanjore painting, which originated in Thanjavur in the 9th century. The painting's base is made of cloth and coated with zinc oxide, over which the image is painted using dyes; it is then decorated with semi-precious stones, as well as silver or gold thread.^[190] A style which is related in origin, but which exhibits significant differences in execution, is used for painting murals on temple walls; the most notable example are the murals on the Koodal Azhagar temple and Meenakshi temple of Madurai, and the Brihadeeswarar temple of Tanjore.^[191]

Tamil sculpture ranges from elegant stone sculptures in temples, to bronze icons with exquisite details.^[192] The medieval Chola bronzes are considered to be one of India's greatest contributions to world art.^[193][194] Unlike most Western art, the material in Tamil sculpture does not influence the form taken by the sculpture; instead, the artist imposes his/her vision of the form on the material.^[195] As a result, one often sees in stone sculptures flowing forms that are usually reserved for metal.^[196]

Music[edit]

Ancient Tamil works, such as the Cilappatikaram, describe a system of music,^[197] and a 7th-century Pallava inscription at Kudimiyamalai contains one of the earliest surviving examples of Indian music in notation.^[198] Contemporary dance forms such as Bharatanatyam have recent origins but are based on older temple dance forms known as Catir Kacceri as practised by courtesans and a class of women known as Devadasis.^[199]

Performing arts[edit]

Famous Tamil dance styles are

• Bharatanatyam (Tamil classical dance)
• Karakattam (Tamil ancient folk dance)
• Koothu (A folk and street dance)
• Parai attam (A folk drums and dance)
• Kavadiattam (dedicated to the Tamil God Murugan)
• Kummiyattam (female folk dance)
• Bommalattam (Puppet dance)
• Puliyattam (Tiger dance)
• Mayilattam (Peacock dance)
• Paampu attam (Snake dance)
• Oyilattam (Dance of Grace)
• Poikkaal Kuthirai Aattam (False legged horses dance)

Contemporary dance forms such as Bharatanatyam have recent origins but are based on older temple dance forms known as Catir Kacceri as practised by courtesans and a class of women known as Devadasis.^[199]One of the Tamil folk dances is karakattam. In its religious form, the dance is performed in front of an image of the goddess Mariamma.^[200] The kuravanci is a type of dance-drama, performed by four to eight women. The drama is opened by a woman playing the part of a female soothsayer of the kurava tribe (people of hills and mountains), who tells the story of a lady pining for her lover. The therukoothu, literally meaning 'street play', is a form of village theater or folk opera. It is traditionally performed in village squares, with no sets and very simple props.^[201] The performances involve songs and dances, and the stories can be either religious or secular.^[202] The performances are not formal, and performers often interact with the audience, mocking them, or involving them in the dialogue. Therukkūthu has, in recent times, been very successfully adapted to convey social messages, such as abstinence and anti-caste criticism, as well as information about legal rights, and has spread to other parts of India.^[203] Tamil Nadu also has a well developed stage theatre tradition, which has been influenced by western theatre. A number of theatrical companies exist, with repertoires including absurdist, realist, and humorous plays.^[204]

Film and theater arts[edit]

Theatrical culture flourished among Tamils during the classical age. Tamil theatre has a long and varied history whose origins can be traced back almost two millennia to dance-theatre forms like Kotukotti and Pandarangam, which are mentioned in an ancient anthology of poems entitled the Kalingathu Parani.^[205] The modern Tamil film industry originated during the 20th century. Tamil film industry has its headquarters in Chennai and is known as Kollywood; it is the second largest film industry in India after Bollywood.^[206] Films from Kollywood entertain audiences not only in India but also overseas Tamil diaspora. Tamil films from Chennai have been distributed to various overseas theatres in Singapore, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Malaysia, Japan, Oceania, the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America.^[207] Independent Tamil film production inspired by Kollywood originated outside India in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Canada, and western Europe. Several Tamil actresses such as Anuisa Ranjan Vyjayanthimala, Hema Malini, Rekha Ganesan, Sridevi, Meenakshi Sheshadri, and Vidya Balan have acted in Bollywood and dominated the cinema over the years. Some Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu like MG Ramachandran, Karunanidhi and Jayalalithaa have their background in the Tamil film industry.

Sports in Tamil Nadu[edit]

The people of Tamil Nadu play traditional sports and sports from other countries. Tamil Nadu has some notable players in each sport.

1. Jallikattu: Jallikattu is a bull-taming sport in Tamil Nadu, over 2000 years old and an integral part of Tamil culture. In Ancient times, two bull-taming and bull-racing sports were conducted: manjuvirattu and yeruthazhuval. These sports were organised to keep the people's temperament always fit and ready for war at any time. Each has its own techniques and rules. These sports acted as one of the criteria for marrying girls of a warrior family. There were traditions where the winner would be chosen as bridegroom for their daughter or sister. On the other hand, the untamable bulls were held as a pride of the owner/village and used for breeding the cows. Unlike western bullfighting, bulls and warriors participated in the sport year after year. The ancient Tamil art of unarmed bull taming, popular amongst warriors in the classical period,^[208][209] has also survived in parts of Tamil Nadu, notably Alanganallur near Madurai, where it is known as jallikattu and is held once a year around the time of the Pongal festival.
2. Kabaddi: A traditional sport that originated in Tamil Nadu.^[210] The word 'Kabaddi' is probably derived from Tamil word 'kai-pidi' ('to hold hands').^[211]
3. Mattu Vandy Elgai Panthayam (Reckla Race): Bullock cart racing is mostly celebrated in southern Tamil Nadu.
4. Silambam (Staff fencing): Silambam is a martial art originated in the ancient Tamilakam. In 1978, the Tamil Nadu government and Tamil Nadu Olympic Federation recognised silambam as a traditional sport, but it was not recognised by the Sports Ministry of India and Indian Olympic Association.^[212]
5. Cricket: More people are interested in cricket. Notable players from Tamil Nadu are Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan, Krishnamachari Srikkanth, Laxman Sivaramakrishnan, Lakshmipathy Balaji, Baba Aparajith, Murali Vijay, Ravichandran Ashwin, Murugan Ashwin, Sadagoppan Ramesh and Dinesh Karthik. In Chennai M. A. Chidambaram Stadium is present with a capacity of 50,000.
6. Chess: Chess is a widely popular game in the state. The Tamil Nadu State Chess Association (TNSCA) is the apex body for the game of chess in Tamil Nadu. Viswanathan 'Vishy' Anand is an Indian chess Grandmaster and former World Chess Champion. Described by chess commentator Lubomir Kavalek as one of the most versatile world champions ever, Anand has won the World Chess Championship five times (2000, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012), and was the undisputed World Champion from 2007 to 2013.
7. Hockey: Fewer people are interested in hockey. Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu is planning to set up a hockey academy.^[213]
8. Squash: Joshna Chinappa, Dipika Pallikal are the notable players.
9. Swimming: Kutraleeswaran is a notable swimmer.^[214]
10. Tennis: Chennai Open is a professional tennis tournament organised in Chennai every January. Notable players are Ramesh Krishnan, Ramanathan Krishnan, Vijay Amritraj, Mahesh Bhupathi and Nirupama Vaidyanathan.
11. Motor racing: The sport was pioneered by Sundaram Karivardhan (1954–95) in its early days. Motor racing between the 1960s and 1980s was conducted at Sholavaram, a track used as a World War II air strip.^[215] Modern motor racing events are held at the Irungattukottai Race Track owned and operated by Madras Motor Sports Club near Sriperumbudur and Kari Motor Speedway near Coimbatore. The people representing India in Formula 1 are from Tamil Nadu, namely Narain Karthikeyan and Karun Chandhok. In F2 European season held in 2010, Parthiva Sureshwaren and Ajith Kumar represented India.^[216]
12. Volleyball: Tamil Nadu team won gold in national level men's volleyball competition held in 2011.^[217]
13. Archery: Srither won gold at the Asian Archery Championship held at Indonesia in November 2009.^[218]
14. Football: The Tamil Nadu football team represented Tamil Nadu for the Santosh Trophy.
15. Paralympic games: Mariyappan Thangavelu has won the gold medal in the finals of 2016 Summer Paralympic games held in Rio de Janeiro.^[219][220]

Tamil cuisine[edit]

Tamil cuisine includes vegetarian and non-vegetarian food. Some Tamils, especially those belonging to the Brahmin caste are vegetarian because of religious reasons.^[221]Rice has great importance in Tamil culture. Tamil people were among the first peoples who cultivated rice; the word 'rice' probably has its origin in Tamil word 'Arisi'.^[222][223] Rice is mostly eaten with vegetarian and non-vegetarian curries. Traditionally, the Tamils sit on the ground and the food is served on a banana leaf. The traditional foods are eaten with the right hand. Dishes such as dosa, idli, and vadai are served with sambar, chutney or in Sri Lanka with coconut sambal. Rasam replaces soup in Tamil cuisine. The Tamil cuisine in Sri Lanka differs little from that of South India.^[224] A famous Sri Lankan Tamil specialty is kottu roti, available in most Sri Lankan restaurants in the country and abroad.

See also[edit]

Tamil Gallery Thirumavalavan

Notes[edit]

1. ^Tamils in Sri Lanka are classified into three ethnicities by the Sri Lankan government namely, Sri Lankan Tamils, Indian Origin Tamils and Sri Lankan Moors who accounted for 11.2%, 4.1% and 9.3% respectively of the country's population in 2011.^[8] Indian Origin Tamils were separately classified in the 1911 census onwards, while the Sri Lankan government lists a substantial Tamil-speaking Muslim population as a distinct ethnicity. However, much of the available genealogical evidence suggests that the Sri Lankan Moor community are of Tamil ethnicity, and that the majority of their ancestors were also Tamils who had lived in the country for generations, and had simply converted to Islam from other faiths.^{[9][10][11][12]} It is also evidenced by the fact that Sri Lankan Moors were not a self-defined group of people and neither did the 'Moor' identity exist before the arrival of Portuguese colonists.^[13]
2. ^Lockard: 'The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis.'^[139] Lockard: 'Saivam can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries.'^[140]

Sources[edit]

1. ^ ^abTamil at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
2. ^Statement 1 : Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues – 2011
3. ^'Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka, 2012 – Table A3: Population by district, ethnic group and sex'(PDF). Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka.
4. ^'Basic Demographic Characteristics: Table 6 Indian Resident Population by Age Group, Dialect Group and Sex'. Census of Population 2010 Statistical Release 1: Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion. Department of Statistics, Singapore. Archived from the original on 8 September 2013.
5. ^Kshatriya, G.K. (1995), 'Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations', Human Biology, 67 (6): 843–66, PMID8543296
6. ^Minahan, James (2012). Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-1-59884-659-1.
7. ^N. Subrahmanian (1996). The Tamils: Their History, Culture, and Civilization. 36. Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 150–58.
8. ^'A2: Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012'. Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka.
9. ^ ^abcMohan, Vasundhara (1987). Identity Crisis of Sri Lankan Muslims. Delhi: Mittal Publications. pp. 9–14, 27–30, 67–74, 113–18.
10. ^ ^ab'Ross Brann, 'The Moors?''(PDF). Drum.lib.umd.edu. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
11. ^ ^abc'Analysis: Tamil-Muslim divide'. BBC News World Edition. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
12. ^ ^abZemzem, Akbar (1970). The Life and Times of Marhoom Wappichi Marikar (booklet). Colombo.
13. ^Pieris, P.E. 'Ceylon and the Hollanders 1658–1796'. American Ceylon Mission Press, Tellippalai Ceylon 1918
14. ^http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/StatsbySubj/Documents/Digest/Demographic13.pdf
15. ^Kalyanaraman, M. (8 April 2019). 'It is official: Tamil race is at least 3,000 years old'. The Federal. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
16. ^Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot by Mohan Lal p. 4283
17. ^South Asian Studies. South Asian Studies Centre, Department of Political Science, University of Rajasthan. 1999. p. 11.
18. ^Chattopadhyaya, Haraprasad; Sarkar, S.K. (2003). Ethnic Composition and Crisis in South Asia: Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 480. ISBN9788187746737.
19. ^Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p. 79
20. ^The Emporium of the World: Maritime Quanzhou, 1000–1400 by Angela Schottenhammer p. 293
21. ^Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot by Mohan Lal p. 4284
22. ^'Michael Wood, BBC'. Bbc.co.uk. 5 November 2009. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
23. ^Wood, Michael (2 August 2007). A South Indian Journey: The Smile of Murugan. Penguin UK. ISBN978-0-14-193527-0.
24. ^ ^abcIndrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, pp. 155–56
25. ^The cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia By Edward Balfour
26. ^Southworth, Franklin C. (1998), 'On the Origin of the word tamiz', International Journal of Dravidial Linguistics, 27 (1): 129–32
27. ^Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1992), Companion Studies to the history of Tamil literature, Leiden: E.J. Brill at pp. x–xvi.
28. ^John, Vino (27 January 2006), Reading the past in a more inclusive way: Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne, Frontline, archived from the original on 2 February 2009, retrieved 9 July 2008, But Indian/south Indian history/archaeology has pushed the date back to 1500 B.C., and in Sri Lanka, there are definitely good radiometric dates coming from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occur at least around 900 B.C. or 1000 B.C.
29. ^K. De B. Codrington (October 1930), 'Indian Cairn- and Urn-Burials', Man, 30 (30): 190–96, doi:10.2307/2790468, JSTOR2790468, .. at Perambair & Pallavaram a second type of burial exists in legged urns ..
30. ^Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture – K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, pp. 4&>`67
31. ^K. De B. Codrington (August 2017), 'Indian Cairn- and Urn-Burials', Man, 30 (30): 190–196, doi:10.2307/2790468, JSTOR2790468, It is necessary to draw attention to certain passages in early Tamil literature which throw a great deal of light upon this strange burial ceremonial ..
32. ^Nilakanta Sastri, A history of South India, p. 105
33. ^K.A.N. Sashtri, A History of South India, pp. 109–12
34. ^'There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements ..' —'Perspectives on Kerala History'. P.J. Cherian (ed). Kerala Council for Historical Research. Archived from the original on 26 August 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
35. ^ ^abcKanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).
36. ^ ^abK. Sivathamby (December 1974), 'Early South Indian Society and Economy: The Tinai Concept', Social Scientist, 3 (5): 20–37, doi:10.2307/3516448, JSTOR3516448, Those who ruled over small territories were called Kurunilamannar. The area ruled by such a small ruler usually corresponded to a geographical unit. In Purananuru a number of such chieftains are mentioned;.
37. ^'Grand Anaicut', Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 3 May 2006
38. ^ ^abM.G.S. Narayanan (September 1988), 'The Role of Peasants in the Early History of Tamilakam in South India', Social Scientist, 16 (9): 17–34, doi:10.2307/3517170, JSTOR3517170
39. ^'Pandya Dynasty', Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 3 May 2007
40. ^'Archaeologists Uncover Ancient Maritime Spice Route Between India, Egypt', Veluppillai, Prof. A.
41. ^The term Periplus refers to the region of the eastern seaboard of South India as Damirica – 'The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century', Ancient History source book
42. ^ ^abIndian Geographical Society (1941), The Indian Geographical Journal, p. 69, These Kalabhras were thrown out by the powerful Pallava dynasty in the fourth century AD .. this period is aptly known as 'Dark Ages' of Tamil Nadu.
43. ^'Kalabhraas were denounced as 'evil kings' (kaliararar) – K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p. 130
44. ^K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India
45. ^Marilyn Hirsh (1987), 'Mahendravarman I Pallava: Artist and Patron of Mamallapuram', Artibus Asiae, 48 (1/2): 109–130, doi:10.2307/3249854, JSTOR3249854
46. ^A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲ (2000). Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. p. 17.
47. ^'Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni ..' —'Ashoka's second minor rock edict'. Colorado State University. Archived from the original on 28 October 2013. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
48. ^K.A.N. Sastri, 'The CoLas', 1935 p. 20
49. ^'Hathigumpha Inscription'. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp. 86–89. Missouri Southern State University. Archived from the original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
50. ^(Source- K.A. Nilakanta Sastri's 'History of South India')
51. ^Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature', p. 12
52. ^K.A.N. Sastri, 'A History of South India', OUP (1955) p. 105
53. ^name='his_of_india'Smith, Vincent Arthur (1904), The Early History of India, The Clarendon press, pp. 336–58, ISBN978-81-7156-618-1
54. ^Chandra, Satish (1997), Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526) – I, Har-Anand Publications, p. 250, ISBN978-81-241-1064-5, .. Starting from the Tamil lands under the Pallava kings, bhakti spread to different parts of south India ..
55. ^Chopra, Ravindran and Subramanian (2003), p. 74 part 1
56. ^Sastri (1955), p. 136
57. ^Sastri 1955, p. 140
58. ^Sastri (1955), p. 162
59. ^ ^abcSmith, Vincent Arthur (1904), The Early History of India, The Clarendon press, pp. 336–58, ISBN978-81-7156-618-1
60. ^Srivastava, Balram (1973), Rajendra Chola, National Book Trust, India, p. 80, The mission which Rajendra sent to China was essentially a trade mission, ..
61. ^D. Curtin, Philip (1984), Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, Cambridge University Press, p. 101, ISBN978-0-521-26931-5
62. ^The Cambridge Shorter History of India. CUP Archive. p. 191.
63. ^Sailendra Nath Sen. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International, 1999. p. 485.
64. ^Singapore in Global History by Derek Thiam Soon Heng, Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied p.40
65. ^Hermann Kulke; K Kesavapany; Vijay Sakhuja. Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009 - History. pp. 11–12.
66. ^K. A. N. Sastri (1955). The Cōḷas. University of Madras. p. 301.
67. ^Government Of Madras Staff, Government of Madras. Gazetteer of the Nellore District: Brought Upto 1938. Asian Educational Services, 2004. pp. 44–45.
68. ^Sri Venkatesvara Oriental Institute. Journal of the Sri Venkatesvara Oriental Institute, Volumes 5-7. p. 64.
69. ^Sailendra Nath Sen. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International, 1999. p. 487.
70. ^Sailendra Nath Sen. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International, 1999. p. 459.
71. ^Freeman, Rich (February 1998), 'Rubies and Coral: The Lapidary Crafting of Language in Kerala', The Journal of Asian Studies, 57 (1): 38–65, doi:10.2307/2659023, JSTOR2659023 at pp. 41–43.
72. ^Subrahmanian, N. (1993). Social and cultural history of Tamilnad. Ennes. p. 209.
73. ^Paniker, K. Ayyappa (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 299–300. ISBN9788126003655.
74. ^de Silva 2005, p. 129
75. ^Natarajan, V., History of Ceylon Tamils, p. 9
76. ^Indrapala, K. The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, pp. 53–54
77. ^South Asia Association (1987), South Asia Bulletin, University of California, Los Angeles
78. ^'Vedda', Encyclopædia Britannica Online, London: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008, retrieved 23 June 2008
79. ^de Silva 1997, p. 129
80. ^Indrapala, K. The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p. 91
81. ^Subramanian, T.S. (27 January 2006), 'Reading the past in a more inclusive way: Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne', Frontline, archived from the original on 12 June 2008, retrieved 9 July 2008
82. ^Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja (1986). Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. I.B.Tauris. p. 90. ISBN9781850430261.
83. ^Ragupathy, Ponnampalam (1987). Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey. University of Jaffna. p. 223.
84. ^Mahadeva, I. Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D., p. 48
85. ^Indrapala, K., The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p. 157
86. ^de Silva 1997, pp. 30–32
87. ^Mendis, G.C. Ceylon Today and Yesterday, pp. 24–25
88. ^Nadarajan, V., History of Ceylon Tamils, p. 40
89. ^ ^abSpencer, George W (1976), 'The politics of plunder: The Cholas in eleventh century Ceylon', The Journal of Asian Studies, 35 (3): 405–419, doi:10.2307/2053272, JSTOR2053272
90. ^Indrapala, K The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sr Lanka, pp. 214–15
91. ^de Silva 1997, pp. 46, 48, 75
92. ^Mendis, G.C. Ceylon Today and Yesterday, pp. 30–31
93. ^Smith, V.A. The Oxford History of India, p. 224
94. ^de Silva 1997, p. 76
95. ^de Silva 1997, pp. 100–02
96. ^de Silva 1997, pp. 102–04
97. ^de Silva 1997, p. 104
98. ^Knox, Robert (1681), An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, London: Robert Chiswell, p. 166, ISBN978-1-4069-1141-1, 2596825
99. ^Upon arrival in June 1799, Sir Hugh Cleghorn, the island's first British colonial secretary, wrote to the British government of the traits and antiquity of the Tamil nation on the island in the Cleghorn Minute:'Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly the Malabars [another name for Tamils] who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners.' McConnell, D., 2008; Ponnambalam, S. 1983
100. ^ ^abde Silva 1997, p. 121
101. ^Spencer, Sri Lankan history and roots of conflict, p. 23
102. ^Indrapala, K., The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka, p. 275
103. ^'From relief, rehabilitation to peace'. Archived from the original on 24 January 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
104. ^'Independence-seeking Tigers already run a shadow state'. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
105. ^''War victory party' in Sri Lanka'. BBC News. 12 July 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
106. ^Stokke, K. (2006). 'Building the Tamil Eelam State: emerging state institutions and forms of governance in LTTE-controlled areas in Sri Lanka'. Third World Quarterly. 27 (6): 1021–40. CiteSeerX10.1.1.466.5940. doi:10.1080/01436590600850434.
107. ^McConnell, D. (2008). 'The Tamil people's right to self-determination'. Cambridge Review of International Affairs. 21 (1): 59–76. doi:10.1080/09557570701828592.
108. ^Ranganathan, M. (2002). 'Nurturing a Nation on the Net: The Case of Tamil Eelam'. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 8 (2): 51–66. doi:10.1080/13537110208428661. Retrieved 25 March 2008.
109. ^Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict
110. ^Sri Lanka: Current Issues and Historical Background (2002), Walter Nubin, p. 87
111. ^Tambiah, Stanley (1984). Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-78952-1.
112. ^'Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN'. ABC News. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
113. ^'Sri Lanka: New Evidence of Wartime Abuses'. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
114. ^'Almost 5 million Tamils live outside Tamil Nadu, inside India'. Censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
115. ^de Silva 1997, pp. 177, 181
116. ^de Silva 1987, pp. 3–5, 9.
117. ^ ^abDepartment of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka, Population by Ethnicity according to District(PDF), statistics.gov.lk, retrieved 3 May 2007
118. ^V. Suryanarayan (2001), 'In search of a new identity', Frontline, archived from the original on 29 May 2008, retrieved 2 July 2008
119. ^ ^abde Silva 1997, p. 262
120. ^Christophe Z Guilmoto (1993), 'The Tamil Migration Cycle 1830–1950', Economic and Political Weekly, Economic and Political Weekly, 28 (3): 111–20, JSTOR4399307
121. ^Tamil diaspora – a trans state nation, Tamilnation.org, retrieved 4 December 2006
122. ^Shahbazi, Ammar (20 March 2012). 'Strangers to their roots, and those around them'. The News. Archived from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
123. ^McDowell, Chris (1996), A Tamil Asylum Diaspora: Sri Lankan Migration, Settlement and Politics in Switzerland, New York: Berghahn Books, ISBN978-1-57181-917-8
124. ^Foster, Carly (2007). 'Tamils: Population in Canada'. Ryerson University. Archived from the original on 14 February 2008. Retrieved 25 June 2008. According to government figures, there are about 200,000 Tamils in Canada
125. ^English, Kathy (4 April 2009). 'The truth about Tamil statistics'. Toronto Star. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
126. ^'New Beginnings: Tamil Heritage in Toronto'. Heritagetoronto.org. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
127. ^'The Tamil Community in Canada: A Brief Overview'. Tamilculture.com. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
128. ^See Sumathi Ramasamy, Passions of the Tongue, 'Feminising language: Tamil as Goddess, Mother, Maiden' Chapter 3.
129. ^(Ramaswamy 1998)
130. ^Kailasapathy, K. (1979), 'The Tamil Purist Movement: A Re-Evaluation', Social Scientist, 7 (10): 23–51, doi:10.2307/3516775, JSTOR3516775
131. ^See Hart, The Poems of Ancient Tamil: Their Milieu and their Sanskrit Counterparts (1975)
132. ^Mahadevan, Iravatham (2006). A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery. harappa.com. Archived from the original on 4 September 2006.
133. ^Ranbir Vohra (2000). The Making of India: A Historical Survey. M.E. Sharpe. p. 15.
134. ^Grigorii Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985). Ancient Indian Civilization. Arnold-Heinemann. p. 45.
135. ^Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential Hinduism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 45.
136. ^Basham 1967
137. ^Frederick J. Simoons (1998). Plants of life, plants of death. p. 363.
138. ^Krishnamurti (2003), p. 6.
139. ^ ^abLockard 2007, p. 50.
140. ^ ^abLockard 2007, p. 52.
141. ^Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12.
142. ^Tiwari 2002, p. v.
143. ^Zimmer 1951, pp. 218–19.
144. ^Larson 1995, p. 81.
145. ^Manguin, Pierre-Yves; Mani, A.; Wade, Geoff (2011). Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-cultural Exchange. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 138. ISBN9789814345101.
146. ^Thiruchandran, Selvy (1997). Ideology, caste, class, and gender. Vikas Pub. House.
147. ^Manickam, Valliappa Subramaniam (1968). A glimpse of Tamilology. Academy of Tamil Scholars of Tamil Nadu. p. 75.
148. ^Lal, Mohan (2006). The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Five Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5. Sahitya Akademi. p. 4396. ISBN978-81-260-1221-3.
149. ^ ^abc'Census 2001 – Statewise population by Religion'. Censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
150. ^More, J.B.P. (2007), Muslim identity, print culture and the Dravidian factor in Tamil Nadu, Hyderabad: Orient Longman, ISBN978-81-250-2632-7 at p. xv
151. ^Jain, Dhanesh (2003), 'Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages', in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge language family series, London: Routledge, pp. 46–66, ISBN978-0-7007-1130-7 at p. 57.
152. ^Total number of Jains in Tamil Nadu was 88,000 in 2001. Directorate of Census Operations – Tamil Nadu, Census, archived from the original on 30 November 2006, retrieved 5 December 2006
153. ^Maloney, Clarence (1975), 'Religious Beliefs and Social Hierarchy in Tamiḻ Nāḍu, India', American Ethnologist, 2 (1): 169–91, doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.1.02a00100 at p. 178
154. ^M. Shanmugam Pillai, 'Murukan in Cankam Literature: Veriyattu Tribal Worship', First International Conference Seminar on Skanda-Murukan in Chennai, 28–30 December 1998. This article first appeared in the September 1999 issue of The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies, retrieved 6 December 2006
155. ^Harold G. Coward, John R. Hinnells, Raymond Brady Williams, The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States
156. ^'Principles and Practice of Hindu Religion', Hindu Heritage Study Program, archived from the original on 14 November 2006, retrieved 5 December 2006
157. ^P.K. Balachandran, 'Tracing the Sri Lanka-Kerala link', Hindustan Times, 23 March 2006, archived from the original on 10 December 2006, retrieved 5 December 2006
158. ^Dr. R. Ponnus, Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the Struggle for Social Equality in South India, (Madurai Kamaraj University) Ram Publishers, p. 98
159. ^'Indian Dargah's All Cities'. Aulia-e-hind.com. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
160. ^ ^abShashi, S.S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100. Anmol Publications.
161. ^ ^abSubramanium, N. (1980). Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils. Ennes Publications.
162. ^ ^ab'Hero-stone Memorials of India'. Kamat Potpourri. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
163. ^Information on declaration of holiday on the event of birth anniversary of Vaikundar in The HinduArchived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The holiday for three Districts: Daily Thanthi, Daily(Tamil), Nagercoil Edition, 5 March 2006
164. ^Mark Jarzombek (2009), 'Horse Shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on Modernity'(PDF), Future Anterior, 4 (1): 18–36, doi:10.1353/fta.0.0031
165. ^''Hero stone' unearthed', The Hindu, 22 July 2006, Chennai, India, 22 July 2006, retrieved 5 December 2006
166. ^'Redefining secularism', The Hindu, 18 March 2004, Chennai, India, 18 March 2004, retrieved 5 December 2006
167. ^Jaina Literature in Tamil, Prof. A. Chakravartis
168. ^'The Milieu of the Ancient Tamil Poems, Prof. George Hart'. 9 July 1997. Archived from the original on 9 July 1997. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
169. ^Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1992) 'To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots in Two South Indian Martial Traditions'
170. ^'Martial Arts in India'. Sports.indiapress.org. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
171. ^South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka(2003), p. 386.
172. ^Ethnic Insurgency and National Integration: A Study of Selected Ethnic Problems in South Asia (1997) p. 114
173. ^Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution (2002), p. 76.
174. ^Encyclopedia of Modern Worldwide Extremists and Extremist Groups, p. 252.
175. ^ ^abSharada Srinivasan; Srinivasa Ranganathan (2004). India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World. National Institute of Advanced Studies. OCLC82439861.
176. ^Gerald W. R. Ward. The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art. p. 380
177. ^Sharada Srinivasan (1994). Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India. Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 5(1994) 49–59 doi:10.5334/pia.60
178. ^Herbert Henery Coghlan. (1977). Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. pp 99–100
179. ^B. Sasisekharan (1999).TECHNOLOGY OF IRON AND STEEL IN KODUMANAL-Archived 1 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
180. ^ ^abHilda Ellis Davidson. The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature. p. 20
181. ^Burton, Sir Richard Francis (1884). The Book of the Sword. Internet archive: Chatto and Windus. p. 111. ISBN978-1-60520-436-9.
182. ^Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, p. 282.
183. ^Manning, Charlotte Speir. Ancient and Medieval India. Volume 2. ISBN978-0-543-92943-3.
184. ^Hobbies – Volume 68, Issue 5, p. 45. Lghtner Publishing Company (1963)
185. ^Mahathevan, Iravatham (24 June 2010). 'An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil'. The Hindu. The Hindu Group. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
186. ^Ragupathy, P (28 June 2010). 'Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population'. Tamilnet. Tamilnet. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
187. ^[1]Archived 3 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine
188. ^ ^abManning, Charlotte Speir. Ancient and Mediæval India. Volume 2. ISBN978-0-543-92943-3.
189. ^Coomaraswamy, A.K., Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought
190. ^'Tanjore – Painting', tanjore.net, Tanjore.net, retrieved 4 December 2006
191. ^Nayanthara, S. (2006), The World of Indian murals and paintings, Chillbreeze, ISBN978-81-904055-1-5 at pp. 55–57
192. ^'Shilpaic literature of the tamils', V. Ganapathi, INTAMM, retrieved 4 December 2006
193. ^Aschwin Lippe (December 1971), 'Divine Images in Stone and Bronze: South India, Chola Dynasty (c. 850–1280)', Metropolitan Museum Journal, 4: 29–79, doi:10.2307/1512615, JSTOR1512615, The bronze icons of Early Chola period are one of India's greatest contribution to world art ..
194. ^Heaven sent: Michael Wood explores the art of the Chola dynasty, Royal Academy, UK, archived from the original on 3 March 2007, retrieved 26 April 2007
195. ^Berkson, Carmel (2000), 'II The Life of Form pp. 29–65', The Life of Form in Indian Sculpture, Abhinav Publications, ISBN978-81-7017-376-2
196. ^Sivaram 1994
197. ^Nijenhuis, Emmie te (1974), Indian Music: History and Structure, Leiden: Brill, ISBN978-90-04-03978-0 at pp. 4–5
198. ^Widdess, D.R. (1979), 'The Kudumiyamalai inscription: a source of early Indian music in notation', in Picken, Laurence (ed.), Musica Asiatica, 2, London: Oxford University Press, pp. 115–50
199. ^ ^abLeslie, Julia. Roles and rituals for Hindu women, pp. 149–152
200. ^Sharma, Manorama (2004). Folk India: A Comprehensive Study of Indian Folk Music and Culture, Vol. 11
201. ^'Therukoothu'. Tamilnadu.com. 16 February 2013. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013.
202. ^Tamil Art History, eelavar.com, archived from the original on 27 April 2006, retrieved 5 December 2006
203. ^Striving hard to revive and refine ethnic dance form, Chennai, India: hindu.com, 11 November 2006, retrieved 5 December 2006
204. ^'Bhagavata mela', The Hindu, 30 April 2004, Chennai, India: hindu.com, 30 April 2004, retrieved 5 December 2006
205. ^Dennis Kennedy 'The Oxford Encyclopedia of Theatre and Performance, Publisher:Oxford University Press
206. ^Templeton, Tom (26 November 2006), 'The states they're in', Guardian, 26 November 2006, London: guardian.com, retrieved 5 December 2006
207. ^'Eros buys Tamil film distributor', Business Standard, 6 October 2011^{[dead link]}
208. ^Gautier, François (2001), Google books version of the book A Western Journalist on India: The Ferengi's Columns by François Gautier, ISBN978-81-241-0795-9, retrieved 24 May 2007
209. ^Grushkin, Daniel (22 March 2007), 'NY Times: The ritual dates back as far as 2,000 years ..', The New York Times, retrieved 24 May 2007
210. ^International Sport Management. Human Kinetics. May 2010. p. 183. ISBN978-0-7360-8273-0. Retrieved 22 August 2015.
211. ^'kabaddi, etymology'. memidex.com. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
212. ^'Traditional martial arts not given due importance'. newstodaynet.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2016.
213. ^'Veteran hockey players delighted with synthetic turf in Tiruchi'. The Hindu. Tiruchi, India. 25 January 2011.
214. ^Shobha Warrier (6 October 2005). 'Why Kutraleeswaran stopped swimming'. Rediff India – Sports. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
215. ^'Memories of Madras: From Sholavaram to Irungattukottai'. The Hindu. India. 11 October 2011.
216. ^'Ajith Kumar to drive in F2 European season 2010'. The Hindu. Chennai, India. 25 March 2010.
217. ^'Tamil Nadu bags volleyball gold'. The Hindu. Ranchi, India. 18 February 2011.
218. ^'Champion archer Srither felicitated'. The Hindu. Chennai, India. 31 December 2009.
219. ^'Paralympics 2016 Mariyappan Thangavelu wins India's first gold in Rio'. 10 September 2016. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
220. ^Stalin, J. Sam Daniel (10 September 2016). 'Paralympian Mariyappan Thangavelu's Golden Leap From Poverty'. NDTV Sports. Archived from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
221. ^Historical Dictionary of the Tamils, Vijaya Ramaswamy, Scarecrow Press, 22.05.2007.
222. ^A South Indian Journey: The Smile of Murugan, Michael Wood (2002), p. 76.
223. ^Hobson-Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India, Henry Yule, A.C. Burnell, Kate Teltscher (2013), p. 442.
224. ^Mangoes & Curry Leaves: Culinary Travels Through the Great Subcontinent, Jeffrey Alford, Naomi Duguid, Artisan Books, 01.11.2005, p. 146.

References[edit]

• Bowers, F. (1956). Theatre in the East – A Survey of Asian Dance and Drama. New York: Grove Press.
• Casson, L. (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary. Princeton, Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-04060-5.
• Chaitanya, Krishna (1971). A history of Malayalam literature. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN81-250-0488-2.
• Chopra, P.N.; Ravindran, T.K.; Subrahmanian, N (2003) [2003], History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1, New Delhi: Chand Publications, ISBN978-81-219-0153-6
• Coomaraswamy, A.K. (1946). Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought. London: Luzac & Co.
• de Silva, Chandra Richard (1997), Sri Lanka – A History (2, illustrated ed.), Vikas Pub. House, ISBN978-0-9510710-2-1
• de Silva, K. M. (2005), A History of Sri Lanka, Colombo: Vijitha Yapa, ISBN978-955-8095-92-8
• Gadgil, M. & Joshi, N.V. & Shambu Prasad, U.V. & Manoharan, S. & Patil, S. (1997). 'Peopling of India.' In D. Balasubramanian and N. Appaji Rao (eds.), The Indian Human Heritage, pp. 100–129. Hyderabad: Universities Press. ISBN81-7371-128-3.
• Hart, G.L. (1975). The Poems of Ancient Tamil: Their Milieu and their Sanskrit Counterparts. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-02672-1.
• Hart, G.L. (1979). 'The Nature of Tamil Devotion.' In M.M. Deshpande and P.E. Hook (eds.), Aryan and Non-Aryan in India, pp. 11–33. Michigan: Ann Arbor. ISBN0-89148-014-5.
• Hart, G.L. (1987). 'Early Evidence for Caste in South India.' In P. Hockings (ed.), Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David B. Mandelbaum. Berlin: Mouton Gruyter.
• Mark Jarzombek, 'Horse Shrines in Tamil India: Reflections on Modernity', Future Anterior, (4/1), pp 18–36.
• Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Cambridge, Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-01227-5.
• Keay, John (2000) [2000], India: A History, New York: Grove Publications, ISBN978-0-8021-3797-5
• Parpola, Asko (1974). 'On the protohistory of the Indian languages in the light of archaeological, linguistic and religious evidence: An attempt at integration.' In van Lohuizen, J.E. de Leeuw & Ubaghs, J.M.M. (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1973, pp. 90–100. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
• Parpola, Asko (2003). Deciphering the Indus script (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-79566-4.
• Pillai, Suresh B. (1976). Introduction to the study of temple art. Thanjavur: Equator and Meridian.
• Ramaswamy, Sumathi (1998). Passions of the Tongue: language devotion in Tamil India 1891–1970. Delhi: Munshiram. ISBN81-215-0851-7.
• Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (2002) [1955], A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar, New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-560686-7
• Sastri, K.S. Ramaswamy (2002). The Tamils: The People, Their History and Culture, Vol. 1: An Introduction to Tamil History and Society. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. ISBN81-7755-406-9.
• Sharma, Manorama (2004). Folk India: A Comprehensive Study of Indian Folk Music and Culture, Vol. 11: Tamil Nadu and Kerala. New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN81-7574-141-4.
• Sivaram, Rama (1994). Early Chola Art: Origin and Emergence of Style. New Delhi: Navrang. ISBN81-7013-079-4.
• Subramanian, T.S. (17 February 2005), 'Rudimentary Tamil-Brahmi script' unearthed at Adichanallur, Chennai, India: The Hindu
• International Tamil Organisation (2011). 'Tamil Society Organisation'
• Suryanarayan, V. (2001), 'In search of a new identity', Frontline, 18 (16): 2, archived from the original on 8 February 2005.
• Swaminatha Iyer, S.S. (1910). A Brief History of the Tamil Country, Part 1: The Cholas. Tanjore: G.S. Maniya.
• Varadpande, M.L. (1992). Loka Ranga: Panorama of Indian Folk Theatre. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN81-7017-278-0.
• Wells, Spencer (2004). The Journey of Man : A Genetic Odyssey. New York, NY: Random House Trade Paperbacks. ISBN978-0-8129-7146-0.
• Zvebil, K. (1974). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. ISBN90-04-03591-5.
• Indrapala, K (2007). The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Vijitha Yapa. ISBN978-955-1266-72-1.
• Leslie, Julia (June 1992), Roles and rituals for Hindu women, South Asia Books, ISBN978-81-208-1036-5.
• Patil, S. (1997). 'Peopling of India.' In D. Balasubramanian and N. Appaji Rao (eds.), The Indian Human Heritage.

External links[edit]

• TamilsEncyclopædia Britannica entry